Literature Review INTRODUCTION
There is a rich and diverse body of academic research about induction programs. It is clear that supporting new teachers is an important issue and affects quality of instruction, new teacher well being, student achievement, long term longevity of the teacher profession and professional development of mentors. Based on the academic research, four themes have emerged:
Beginning teacher experiences
Program implementation and components
Implications for the educational system
Mentor Experiences
While we realize that these themes are not mutually exclusive, they will help to guide our thinking and shed light on the significance of teacher induction programs.
Beginning teacher experiences with teacher induction are important as they inform us about the perceptions of support and the effects of induction offered by different districts. Understanding where new teachers are coming from is essential for gaining perspective about how we can effectively support their practice in the future. Tillman’s (2000) research documents the positive effects of informal mentoring for the beginning teacher, which is in stark contrast to Holloway (2001) and Wong’s (2001) assertion that only formal mentoring enables beginning teachers to be more successful as teachers. The experiences of pre-service can widely differ and greatly effect how beginning teachers access induction purposes (Roehrig, 2006). Holloway (2001) also emphasizes that mentoring programs are valuable for both the mentor and the beginning teachers, in that reflective activities and professional conversations improve teacher practices. Scott (2000), Gonazales & Sosa (1993), and Mandel (2006) all identify the needs of beginning teachers and also suggest that the needs of teachers shift as the school year progresses.
In contrast to the research about beginning teacher’s experiences, mentor experiences are not well documented. However, it is obvious that it is not only beginning teachers who benefit from induction; mentors benefit through professional development (Huling & Resta, 2001). According to Holloway (2001) and Wollman-Bonilla (1997), the experienced teachers are enthusiastic about mentoring because it allows them to help others, to improve themselves, receive respect, develop collegiality and profit from the novice teacher’s fresh ideas and energy.
Beginning teachers’ experiences with the implementation of induction varies considerably. According to Ingersoll and Smith (2003), the approach to address teacher shortages is to focus of teacher induction programs not on pre-service training. “Teacher practice and teacher learning are culturally scripted activities,” (Wang, 2008). As a result, beginning teachers require a wide array of programs to meet the differentiated needs of beginning teachers (Doerger, 2003; Scott, 2000;). Likewise, any induction program needs to look beyond the individual components and look at the roles of district leadership, district size, local teacher unions and teacher mobility on induction policies and practice (Youngs, 2007). University and district partnership can be an effective approach to address these issues (Kent et al., 2009; Gilles et al., 2009). Implementation of any induction program needs to be multi-faceted (Moir, 2009; Renard, 2003; Roehrig, 2006; Scott, 2000; Tillman, 2000; Wong, 2004) and can be formal (Wong, 2004) or informal (Tillman, 2000).
The implementation of induction programs has broad reaching ramifications. According to Ingersoll & Smith (2003), induction addresses teacher shortages by providing the necessary working conditions to prevent teacher attrition. There is a direct relationship between teacher induction and beginning teacher retention and turnover (Gilles et al, 2009; Gonzales & Sosa (1993); Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Kelly, 2004; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Furthermore, there is a relationship between induction and school staffing problems and school performance (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). The financial implications of teachers leaving the profession are also alleviated (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Mandel also makes specific recommendations about what teachers really need and want during their first year (2006). In contrast, Doerger (2003) reveals the drawbacks of some induction programs, which include competition amongst beginning teachers and a surplus of activities that leave teachers overworked and burnt out.
The four themes that encompass our research, namely, beginning teacher experiences, program implementation and components, implications for the educational system, and mentor experiences, comprise the main topics of our literature reviews which can be found below. As can be seen, the research available on teacher induction is extensive. We appreciate the work that researchers have done before us; we also recognize that, given the scope of our project, we will not be able to fully represent the breadth of this topic. In any case, we hope to have captured the essence of this large field, establishing authentic meaning for this project.
Review of Articles Doerger, D. (2003). The importance of beginning teacher induction in your School. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning,7. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ucalgary.ca/iejll/+Daniel+W.+Doerger
Daniel Doerger (2003), an assistant professor at Indiana University East, has conducted a review of literature surrounding the issues of induction. His main focus encompasses the notion that as more induction programs are being mandated by state and nation, it is important to review the content of these programs. His research shows that some programs simply attempt to fulfill mandated requirements instead of actually trying to help new teachers in their beginning years.
Furthermore, although the benefits to mentoring often outweigh the drawbacks, Doerger finds several weaknesses in many programs. Weaknesses include:
a one-size-fits-all mentality
a lack of time to implement these programs effectively
a surplus of induction activities that leave teachers burnt out
a fostering of competition among beginning teachers
a neglect to acknowledge teachers’ real needs
a neglect to accommodate teachers’ personal development
a lack of funding
Doerger explores several important issues for our study, as our hypothesis focuses on the value of induction programs, and Doerger’s study sheds light on the areas that are lacking within induction. This contrast will be valuable for our work.
Gilles, C., Davis B., & McGlamery, S. (2009). Induction programs that work. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(2), 42-27.
Carol Gilles, an associate professor of literacy and language arts at the University of Missouri, Barbara Davis, the director of the Teaching Fellows Program at Texas State University and Sheryl McGlamery, a professor of science education from the University of Nebraska describe the benefits of the Comprehensive Teacher Induction Consortium model. This innovative program has four crucial components:
A full year of mentored support from a full-time master teacher (Note: the master teacher mentors new teachers for 1/3 of the time, assists with special school projects for another 1/3 of time and works with the university for the last 1/3 of time
Coursework leading to a master’s degree
A cohort group of beginning teachers
Action research projects
Similar to Kent et al. (2009), the implementation of this program at various universities, teacher success and retention rates have increased, and many teaching fellows (mentors) have been fast tracked to leadership roles.
Gonzales, F. & Sosa, A. S. (1993). How do we keep teachers in our classrooms? The TNT Response.IDRA, Newsletter, 1, 6-9.
Frank Gonzales, Ph.D., and Alicia Salinas Sosa, Ph.D., (1993) performed an evaluative study of a project entitled Teachers Need Teachers (TNT), developed by the Intercultural Development Research Association (IDRA). Their study was inspired by the Texas State Board of Education rule 149.22, which calls for all beginning teachers to be assigned a mentor. In their study, the beginning, bilingual education classroom teachers in five Texan school districts, were assigned a mentor with whom they would meet regularly, and recording each meeting in a mentoring log. Two semesters’ worth of log entries were tabulated, from 1991-1992, and the findings showed that particular mentoring topics were emphasized based on school calendar year occurrences. For instance, mentoring based on lesson planning and classroom management was critical in the fall, whereas assistance with report cards and parent communication was critical in the springtime. Furthermore, Gonzales and Sosa found that the mentoring process was valuable and beneficial to beginning teachers. They conclude with several recommendations for future induction programs, reiterating that providing the best instruction possible will make a difference in students’ lives, and will help teachers enjoy the profession, prolonging many teaching careers.
This study helps us understand the various phases which beginning teachers undergo in their first year of teaching. Gonzales and Sosa refer to Moir’s (1990) Phases of First Year Teaching, including Anticipation, Survival, Disillusionment, Rejuvenation, Reflection, and Anticipation. Not unlike Scott’s (2000) findings, which state that beginning teachers’ needs shift as the school year progresses, Gonzales and Sosa highlight the many challenges beginning teachers must overcome.
Holloway, J. H. (2001). The benefits of mentoring.Educational Leadership, 58(8), 85-86.
John H. Holloway (2001), Project Director for Educational Testing Services in Princeton, New Jersey, conducted a study of several mentoring programs across America. His research shows that both mentors and their protégés respond favourably to the mentoring process; however, to be effective, mentors need a support system themselves. Holloway’s studies show that not only do prospective mentors benefit from learning about their expectations and duties, but also their protégés become more successful as a result. Moreover, upon evaluation of the several mentoring programs in review, those with a clear framework and structure had the most positive influence on the mentors and their protégés.
Similar to Wong’s (2001, 2004) findings that indicate that structured and systematic induction programs are most successful, Holloway’s research indicates the same conclusions. Holloway’s research is critical to our study, as it sheds light onto the mentor’s expectations, obligations, and needs, rather than focusing solely on the beginning teachers’ experiences.
Huling, L. & Resta, V. (2001). Teacher mentoring for professional development. ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. (ERIC Document Service No. ED 460125).
Leslie Huling and Virginia Resta identify the benefits for mentors as professional development. According to the research, the benefits of mentoring for the mentor include:
Increased competency
Reflective practice
Professional renewal
Psychological benefits – increased self esteem and feeling of empowerment
Increased collegial interaction
Improved teacher leadership skills
Similar to Wollman-Bonilla (1997), the benefits of mentoring programs are clear for the new teachers, but the implications for the mentors are just as important and should be considered when administrators decide about funding programs from year to year. Supporting mentoring programs benefits both the new teachers and mentors themselves.
Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage. Educational Leadership, 30-33.
Richard M. Ingersoll (2003) and Thomas M. Smith from the University of Pennsylvania and Vanderbilt University report on their findings using data from the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) and the Teacher Follow-up Survey (TFS). They focus specifically on beginning teachers and the reasons for their attrition.
The researchers assert that the teacher shortage is not primarily caused by increase in student enrolment and retirement, but teacher attrition plays a significant role. Looking deeper into the research they found that working conditions within schools and districts is the root of the teacher attrition. This research is a precursor to looking further into addressing the problem of teacher attrition and suggests mentoring as an area of exploration, which is supported by Tillman (2000) and Gilles (2009). Our research will look at the mentoring experience as well as other forms in the teacher induction process.
Kelly, L. M. (2004). Why induction matters. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(5), 438-448.
Linda Molner Kelly (2004) from the University of Colorado at Boulder published results of a study that looked at the long-term retention of novice teachers who participated in an induction partnership between the University of Colorado and six school districts. She hypothesized that providing new teachers with quality induction programs may mitigate significant teacher attrition and thus will have an impact on staffing issues being faced by U.S. schools. She tracked ten cohorts of teacher inductees into their fifth year of teacher researching the components of their program that may have impacted retention.
The primary induction program that Kelly focuses on is the Partnership in Education (PIE) program. Components of this program are:
reflective teaching practices
individual mentoring from an expert teacher each week
frequent networking with other novice teachers
inquiry-based graduate study tailored to each teacher’s professional needs and classroom situation
The findings of Kelly’s research show that such programs are effective in raising teacher competence and retention rates. Kelly’s research extends Ingersoll’s (2001) findings that indicate that more than a third of beginning teachers leave the profession during the first three years, and almost half leave after five years. Although our study will not specifically look at retention rates of teachers, the detailed description of these components will be useful when compared to other teacher induction program elements from our study. The experiences expressed by our subjects can be used as an indicator to infer Kelly’s finding onto local contexts.
Kent, A. M., Feldman, P., & Hayes, R. (2009). Mentoring and induction new Teachers into the profession: An innovative approach. International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 5, 73-95.
Andrea M. Kent, Phillip Feldman and Richard Hayes from the Education Department of the University of South Alabama, describe a Mentoring Teaching Program (MTP) designed to address the bridge the gap between pre-service and inservice teaching. This year-long program allowed first year teachers to begin their teaching careers as full-time instructors in regular classrooms with the support and guidance of a full-time mentor and university supervisor. The focus was on:
Partnering with a local school district to reduce the number of teachers leaving in the first five years
Providing teacher candidates with the skills needed to teach in “hard to staff schools”
Identifying the support systems in a school district that would be necessary for a mentoring or induction program to be successful
It is clear that new teachers need guidance and support and similar to Gilles et al. (2009), formal partnerships between universities and school districts will help beginning teachers to be successful in the classroom.
Mandel, S. (2006). What new teachers really need. Educational Leadership, 63(6), 66-69.
Scott Mandel, an English, History and Musical Theatre teacher at Pacoima Middle School, interviewed mentors and beginning teachers to identify the real needs of new teachers. According to his research, beginning teachers want help with practical information and skills, which include:
Setting up the classroom and preparing for the first few weeks of school
Covering the prescribed curriculum
Grading fairly
Dealing with parents
Maintaining personal sanity
Unlike Moir (2009) and Renard (2003) who describe systemic supports for beginning teachers, Mandel specifically identifies the practical information and skills necessary for teachers to feel greater success and will keep more teachers in the profession.
Moir, E. (2009). Acceleration teacher effectiveness: Lessons learned from two decades of new teacher induction. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(2), 14-19.
Ellen Moir, the executive director of the New Teacher Center in Santa Cruz California describes how induction programs go beyond the new teachers and their mentors who work with them. The research describes the lessons learned over the past twenty years, which include:
Induction programs require system wide commitments to teacher development
Effective induction programs combine high quality mentoring with communities of practice
Online communities provide timely, cost-effective supports for mentoring
Induction programs build a pathway for leaders
Implementing an induction program can be difficult, and similar to Renard (2003), there are specific strategies that can be used to help beginning teachers to be successful.
NationalCenterfor Research on Teacher Learning. (1992). Mentoring in context: A comparison of twoU.S.programs for beginning teachers.East Lansing,Michigan: Feiman-Nemser, S. & Parker, M. B.
Sharon Feiman-Nemser and Michelle B. Parker from the National Center for Research on Teaching Learning at Michigan State University compare two mentoring program, one in Los Angeles and another in Albuquerque. Although both programs rely on experienced teachers to guide and support beginning teachers, the way a teacher is mentored can take one of three forms:
A mentor as a local guide
A mentor as an educational companion
A mentor as agents of change
Regardless, beginning teachers will benefit if they both engage in regular experiences of observation and conversation as tools for improving practice. This study is important as it sheds light about how mentors can support beginning teachers.
Odell, S. J. & Ferraro, D. P. (1992). Teacher mentoring and teacher retention.Journal of Teacher Education, 43(3), 200-204.
Sandra J. Odell and Douglas P. Ferraro (1992), an associate professor from the Department of Education and Professional Development, and the Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, respectively, at Western Michigan University, published results of a study that examined two cohorts of K-5 beginning teachers four years after their initial, mentored teaching year. Findings included that approximately 96% of teachers located were still teaching. Furthermore, of all the types of support received, such as instructional, resources, or management, the teachers most valued the emotional support provided by their mentors. Their research shows that, although mentoring alone cannot retain beginning teachers, as there are a host of other factors including environmental, psychological, and demographic considerations, teacher mentoring may help reduce the early attrition of beginning teachers.
Although our study does not aim to look at beginning teacher attrition rates, the knowledge this study provides about the emotional support necessitated by new teachers is valuable. Similar to the ideas that Gonzales and Sosa (1993) and Scott (2000) focus on, teachers’ needs shift throughout the year, but a most concerted effort must be made in terms of their emotional and personal development.
Renard, L. (2003). Setting new teachers up for failure…or success. Educational Leadership, 60(8), 62-64.
Lisa Renard, an experienced teacher from the Stafford, Virginia School District and the Peak System Team in Colorado describes the struggles of new teachers and describes how schools and district administrators can support new teachers through induction and mentoring programs.
Suggestions for supporting new teachers include:
Avoiding the most challenging classes and grades
Limiting the number of preps
Limiting the coaching and extracurricular activities
Ensuring that mentors and new teachers have the same planning periods for collaboration
Implementing techniques and scaffolding will allow the teachers to feel more confident, empowered and supported to become an effective classroom teacher. This is similar to Moir (2009), who identifies characteristics of effective induction communities.
Roehrig, G. H., & Luft, J. A. (2006). Does one size fit all? The induction experience of beginning science teachers from different teacher-preparation programs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(9), 963-985.
Gillian H. Roehrig (2006) and Julie A. Luft from the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Michigan and Arizona State University respectively used a qualitative study to understand the induction experience of sixteen beginning science teachers. The study’s intent was to see if there is a difference in science teachers' induction experiences due to different teacher preparation training received by the subjects in the study.
The teacher induction program used in the study was the Alternative Support for Induction Science Teachers (ASIST). The findings indicated that the pre-service training of a science teacher influenced the type of support the teacher derived from their induction program. Although the varied pre-service experience in the United States is not the same practice here in B.C., comparisons to specific groups in the study most in-line with our policies would likely be helpful in our study.
Scott, N. H. (2000). Four years later: Issues in teacher induction.
Neil H. Scott (2000), from the University of New Brunswick, published results of a 4-year study of the New Brunswick Beginning Teacher Induction Program (BTIP) from 1995-1999. Findings show that beginning teachers benefit most from induction programs in the first two years of teaching. Furthermore, similar to Doerger’s (2003) findings, a single induction program cannot meet every teacher’s needs. In addition, his research found that there are often issues in matching up mentors with beginning teachers, as the teachers who are available to mentor may not have a classroom in close proximity to the beginning teacher, or may not have a similar course load assignment, leaving the teachers only the most general educational issues to discuss, and no common place to discuss them. Moreover, as Gonzalez and Sosa (1993) comment, the needs of the beginning teacher change as the year evolves; technical and information concerns dominate the early agenda, whereas emotional support and professional assistance increase later on.
Scott’s work is valuable to our study, as it is placed in a Canadian context, and is therefore relevant. Furthermore, the study extends Kilcher’s (1999) work, which outlines the four stages of induction programs: Orientation, Initiation, Consolidation, and Collegial Collaboration, showing, once again, the transformation that new teachers undergo in their formative years. Scott’s work also provides a look ahead, as he comments on the development of administrator induction programs for future educational leaders.
Smith, T. M., & Ingersoll, R. M. (2004). What are the effects of induction and mentoring on beginning teacher turnover? American Educational Research Journal,41(3), 681-714.
Thomas M. Smith (2004) from Vanderbilt University and Richard M. Ingersoll from the University of Pennsylvania look at data from the 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey, which involves all beginning teachers in the United States, to study whether teacher induction has a positive effect on retention of beginning teachers. They hypothesized that there is a direct relationship between teacher induction, beginning teacher retention/turnover, school staffing problems, and school performance. The findings also draw a connection between the financial cost to not only beginning teacher loss, but also poor school performance.
Their findings show that beginning teachers who were provided with mentors form the same subject field and who participated in collective induction activities, such as planning and collaboration with other teachers, were less likely to move to other schools and less likely to leave the teaching occupation after their first year of teaching. These findings are congruent with those of Youngs, Wang, and Kelly. These particular components will be looked into in detail with our study. Additionally a look at the financial consideration of delivery and result of teacher induction will be an interesting angle to take in looking at our local context.
Beverly A. Tillman (2000), an associate professor of teacher education at the University of Dayton in Ohio, contends that there is a need for informal, or secondary, mentoring in beginning teachers’ formative years, especially when combined with formal, systematic programs that are already in place. Her research shows that engaging with a secondary mentor who works off campus can extend the support, communication, and trust necessary for proper mentorship and beginning teacher development. In her studies, beginning teachers admit to feeling utterly overwhelmed within the first week of school, largely due to the fact that novice teachers are faced with many of the same challenges as twenty-year veteran teachers, only without the skills and experience that they have. The beginning teachers studied gladly welcomed the additional support, as informal mentoring can provide a lifeline based on dialogue and sharing as opposed to the anxiety-induced observations and evaluations that formal mentors often partake in; the multiple forms of mentoring helped teachers feel more confident and reassured in their teaching.
Tillman’s findings are beneficial to our study, as we hypothesize that informal mentoring will play a large role in our subjects’ mentoring experiences; her studies have helped us gain an understanding of the unofficial mentoring available to beginning teachers. Unlike Wong’s (2001, 2004) work, which focuses on systematic, structured mentoring, Tillman offers a new perspective for our study.
Wang, J., Odell, S. J., Schwille, S. A. (2008). Effects of teacher induction on beginning teachers' teaching: A critical review of the literature. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(2), 132-152.
Associate Professor Jian Wang (2008) and Professor and Chair Sandra J. Odell, of the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and Dr. Sharon A. Schwille a senior academic specialist from Michigan State University, East Lansing perform a critical review of the literature that dates back to 1997 on the effects of teacher induction on beginning teachers’ conceptions and practice of teaching. The literature is analyzed from three approaches:
effects of teacher induction components on beginning teachers’ teaching
effects through teacher’ self-reports
effects of using multiple data sources
The cumulative nature of this study by Wang et al. provides our study with a large background of work based upon teacher induction programs:
various teacher mentoring models
lesson-based observation and conversations
workshops and ongoing supports
collaboration of beginning teachers
content-focused induction
Their work summarizes and comments upon aspects of teacher induction that we will be able to compare and contrast to our findings. This study shows that the effects on actual teacher practice and student achievement resulting from teacher induction programs is one that has not effectively been looked upon. They suggest possible direction for future research which we will be able to use to provide perspective to our findings.
Wollman-Bonilla, J. E. (1997). Mentoring as a two-way street. Journal of Staff Development, 18, 50-52.
Julie E. Wollman-Bonilla, an associate professor in the Department of Elementary Education at the Rhode Island College, investigated the benefits of mentoring programs on the mentors themselves. Traditionally, mentoring programs have been designed to support new teachers. However, the Barrington, Rhode Island’s mentoring program coincidentally also supported experienced mentor teachers with exceptional professional development opportunities by:
Boosting self esteem – mentors felt honored to be recognized for their teaching abilities
Reducing feelings of isolation – mentors had colleagues to share with
Allowing teachers more opportunities for reflection
Learning from the new teachers
It is clear that new teachers benefit from mentoring programs, and similar to Huling-Resta (2001), mentors also greatly benefit as it provides another avenue for professional development.
Wong, H. K. (2004). Induction programs that keep new teachers teaching and improving.NASSP Bulletin, 88(638), 41-58.
Harry K. Wong (2004), a former high school science teacher, conducts an investigation of various American schools and school districts implementing successful induction programs. Research confirms that teacher qualification and acculturation lead to greater student success. Wong also maintains that teacher induction is a comprehensive and sustained process which enables teachers to become aware of their school and district missions and goals, as well as become guided and supported in their teaching practice and in their collaboration with other teachers. Furthermore, induction programs powered by principals are well-supported systems that should encourage lifelong, sustained professional development among teachers. While mentoring remains a large part of induction, Wong is clear about the difference between induction and mentoring, stating that comprehensive and successful induction programs involve a more extensive support system for beginning teachers, rather than only assigning a veteran teacher to a beginning teacher.
Wong’s findings implicate student achievement, not unlike the findings in the study conducted by Gonzalez and Sosa (1993). As much of our research alludes to, over 50% of new teachers will leave within their first five years. Our study will incorporate Wong’s findings in the implications of teacher retention and attrition.
Wong, H. K. (2001). Mentoring can’t do it all: New teachers learn best from systematic induction programs.Education Week, 20(43), 46-50.
Harry K. Wong (2001), a former high school science teacher, once again focuses on the differences between mentoring and induction as he investigates and evaluates several induction programs offered across American schools and school districts. He maintains that strong induction programs are systematic and longitudinal in their efforts, as opposed to the brief and ineffective contact a beginning teacher may have with a mentor. His research shows that teachers matched up solely with mentors improved minimally, as the mentor merely aided in reflection practices. On the other hand, Wong claims that training, support, and retention are the three major components in establishing systematic induction programs, and when done well, this kind of induction can strengthen and even positively change schools and teachers. In his research, the cooperative, structured, and sustained programs were most successful in terms of novice teacher success.
Wong’s findings are helpful to our study in that we can compare and contrast the many types of induction programs being implemented across America, especially with the programs mentioned in Holloway’s (2001) and Doerger’s (2003) work.
Youngs, P. (2007). District induction policy and new teachers' experiences: An examination of local policy implementation inConnecticut. Teachers College Record, 109(4), 797-836.
Peter Youngs (2007) from Michigan State University used case studies from 2000-2001 based upon two urban high-poverty Connecticut districts to explore how variations in teacher induction delivery affected the experience of beginning teachers. Furthermore, the focus of the study was to look at how the understanding of teaching induction by mentors, principals, and other educators mediates the effects of such programs.
Their findings show that difference in induction experience were related to district policy involving mentor selection, mentor assignment, and professional development. The relevance of these results suggest that teacher induction design by districts should look beyond the components of any particular program and examine the role of district leadership, district size, local teacher unions, and teacher mobility on induction policies and practices. Youngs' research gives our study another perspective to look at in examining our experience in the local context.
INTRODUCTION
There is a rich and diverse body of academic research about induction programs. It is clear that supporting new teachers is an important issue and affects quality of instruction, new teacher well being, student achievement, long term longevity of the teacher profession and professional development of mentors. Based on the academic research, four themes have emerged:
- Beginning teacher experiences
- Program implementation and components
- Implications for the educational system
- Mentor Experiences
While we realize that these themes are not mutually exclusive, they will help to guide our thinking and shed light on the significance of teacher induction programs.Beginning teacher experiences with teacher induction are important as they inform us about the perceptions of support and the effects of induction offered by different districts. Understanding where new teachers are coming from is essential for gaining perspective about how we can effectively support their practice in the future. Tillman’s (2000) research documents the positive effects of informal mentoring for the beginning teacher, which is in stark contrast to Holloway (2001) and Wong’s (2001) assertion that only formal mentoring enables beginning teachers to be more successful as teachers. The experiences of pre-service can widely differ and greatly effect how beginning teachers access induction purposes (Roehrig, 2006). Holloway (2001) also emphasizes that mentoring programs are valuable for both the mentor and the beginning teachers, in that reflective activities and professional conversations improve teacher practices. Scott (2000), Gonazales & Sosa (1993), and Mandel (2006) all identify the needs of beginning teachers and also suggest that the needs of teachers shift as the school year progresses.
In contrast to the research about beginning teacher’s experiences, mentor experiences are not well documented. However, it is obvious that it is not only beginning teachers who benefit from induction; mentors benefit through professional development (Huling & Resta, 2001). According to Holloway (2001) and Wollman-Bonilla (1997), the experienced teachers are enthusiastic about mentoring because it allows them to help others, to improve themselves, receive respect, develop collegiality and profit from the novice teacher’s fresh ideas and energy.
Beginning teachers’ experiences with the implementation of induction varies considerably. According to Ingersoll and Smith (2003), the approach to address teacher shortages is to focus of teacher induction programs not on pre-service training. “Teacher practice and teacher learning are culturally scripted activities,” (Wang, 2008). As a result, beginning teachers require a wide array of programs to meet the differentiated needs of beginning teachers (Doerger, 2003; Scott, 2000;). Likewise, any induction program needs to look beyond the individual components and look at the roles of district leadership, district size, local teacher unions and teacher mobility on induction policies and practice (Youngs, 2007). University and district partnership can be an effective approach to address these issues (Kent et al., 2009; Gilles et al., 2009). Implementation of any induction program needs to be multi-faceted (Moir, 2009; Renard, 2003; Roehrig, 2006; Scott, 2000; Tillman, 2000; Wong, 2004) and can be formal (Wong, 2004) or informal (Tillman, 2000).
The implementation of induction programs has broad reaching ramifications. According to Ingersoll & Smith (2003), induction addresses teacher shortages by providing the necessary working conditions to prevent teacher attrition. There is a direct relationship between teacher induction and beginning teacher retention and turnover (Gilles et al, 2009; Gonzales & Sosa (1993); Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Kelly, 2004; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Furthermore, there is a relationship between induction and school staffing problems and school performance (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). The financial implications of teachers leaving the profession are also alleviated (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Mandel also makes specific recommendations about what teachers really need and want during their first year (2006). In contrast, Doerger (2003) reveals the drawbacks of some induction programs, which include competition amongst beginning teachers and a surplus of activities that leave teachers overworked and burnt out.
The four themes that encompass our research, namely, beginning teacher experiences, program implementation and components, implications for the educational system, and mentor experiences, comprise the main topics of our literature reviews which can be found below. As can be seen, the research available on teacher induction is extensive. We appreciate the work that researchers have done before us; we also recognize that, given the scope of our project, we will not be able to fully represent the breadth of this topic. In any case, we hope to have captured the essence of this large field, establishing authentic meaning for this project.
Review of Articles
Doerger, D. (2003). The importance of beginning teacher induction in your School.
International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 7. Retrieved from http://www.ucalgary.ca/iejll/+Daniel+W.+Doerger
Daniel Doerger (2003), an assistant professor at Indiana University East, has conducted a review of literature surrounding the issues of induction. His main focus encompasses the notion that as more induction programs are being mandated by state and nation, it is important to review the content of these programs. His research shows that some programs simply attempt to fulfill mandated requirements instead of actually trying to help new teachers in their beginning years.
Furthermore, although the benefits to mentoring often outweigh the drawbacks, Doerger finds several weaknesses in many programs. Weaknesses include:
- a one-size-fits-all mentality
- a lack of time to implement these programs effectively
- a surplus of induction activities that leave teachers burnt out
- a fostering of competition among beginning teachers
- a neglect to acknowledge teachers’ real needs
- a neglect to accommodate teachers’ personal development
- a lack of funding
Doerger explores several important issues for our study, as our hypothesis focuses on the value of induction programs, and Doerger’s study sheds light on the areas that are lacking within induction. This contrast will be valuable for our work.Gilles, C., Davis B., & McGlamery, S. (2009). Induction programs that work. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(2), 42-27.
Carol Gilles, an associate professor of literacy and language arts at the University of Missouri, Barbara Davis, the director of the Teaching Fellows Program at Texas State University and Sheryl McGlamery, a professor of science education from the University of Nebraska describe the benefits of the Comprehensive Teacher Induction Consortium model. This innovative program has four crucial components:
- A full year of mentored support from a full-time master teacher (Note: the master teacher mentors new teachers for 1/3 of the time, assists with special school projects for another 1/3 of time and works with the university for the last 1/3 of time
- Coursework leading to a master’s degree
- A cohort group of beginning teachers
- Action research projects
Similar to Kent et al. (2009), the implementation of this program at various universities, teacher success and retention rates have increased, and many teaching fellows (mentors) have been fast tracked to leadership roles.Gonzales, F. & Sosa, A. S. (1993). How do we keep teachers in our classrooms? The TNT Response. IDRA, Newsletter, 1, 6-9.
Frank Gonzales, Ph.D., and Alicia Salinas Sosa, Ph.D., (1993) performed an evaluative study of a project entitled Teachers Need Teachers (TNT), developed by the Intercultural Development Research Association (IDRA). Their study was inspired by the Texas State Board of Education rule 149.22, which calls for all beginning teachers to be assigned a mentor. In their study, the beginning, bilingual education classroom teachers in five Texan school districts, were assigned a mentor with whom they would meet regularly, and recording each meeting in a mentoring log. Two semesters’ worth of log entries were tabulated, from 1991-1992, and the findings showed that particular mentoring topics were emphasized based on school calendar year occurrences. For instance, mentoring based on lesson planning and classroom management was critical in the fall, whereas assistance with report cards and parent communication was critical in the springtime. Furthermore, Gonzales and Sosa found that the mentoring process was valuable and beneficial to beginning teachers. They conclude with several recommendations for future induction programs, reiterating that providing the best instruction possible will make a difference in students’ lives, and will help teachers enjoy the profession, prolonging many teaching careers.
This study helps us understand the various phases which beginning teachers undergo in their first year of teaching. Gonzales and Sosa refer to Moir’s (1990) Phases of First Year Teaching, including Anticipation, Survival, Disillusionment, Rejuvenation, Reflection, and Anticipation. Not unlike Scott’s (2000) findings, which state that beginning teachers’ needs shift as the school year progresses, Gonzales and Sosa highlight the many challenges beginning teachers must overcome.
Holloway, J. H. (2001). The benefits of mentoring. Educational Leadership, 58(8), 85-86.
John H. Holloway (2001), Project Director for Educational Testing Services in Princeton, New Jersey, conducted a study of several mentoring programs across America. His research shows that both mentors and their protégés respond favourably to the mentoring process; however, to be effective, mentors need a support system themselves. Holloway’s studies show that not only do prospective mentors benefit from learning about their expectations and duties, but also their protégés become more successful as a result. Moreover, upon evaluation of the several mentoring programs in review, those with a clear framework and structure had the most positive influence on the mentors and their protégés.
Similar to Wong’s (2001, 2004) findings that indicate that structured and systematic induction programs are most successful, Holloway’s research indicates the same conclusions. Holloway’s research is critical to our study, as it sheds light onto the mentor’s expectations, obligations, and needs, rather than focusing solely on the beginning teachers’ experiences.
Huling, L. & Resta, V. (2001). Teacher mentoring for professional development. ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. (ERIC Document Service No. ED 460125).
Leslie Huling and Virginia Resta identify the benefits for mentors as professional development. According to the research, the benefits of mentoring for the mentor include:
- Increased competency
- Reflective practice
- Professional renewal
- Psychological benefits – increased self esteem and feeling of empowerment
- Increased collegial interaction
- Improved teacher leadership skills
Similar to Wollman-Bonilla (1997), the benefits of mentoring programs are clear for the new teachers, but the implications for the mentors are just as important and should be considered when administrators decide about funding programs from year to year. Supporting mentoring programs benefits both the new teachers and mentors themselves.Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage. Educational Leadership, 30-33.
Richard M. Ingersoll (2003) and Thomas M. Smith from the University of Pennsylvania and Vanderbilt University report on their findings using data from the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) and the Teacher Follow-up Survey (TFS). They focus specifically on beginning teachers and the reasons for their attrition.
The researchers assert that the teacher shortage is not primarily caused by increase in student enrolment and retirement, but teacher attrition plays a significant role. Looking deeper into the research they found that working conditions within schools and districts is the root of the teacher attrition. This research is a precursor to looking further into addressing the problem of teacher attrition and suggests mentoring as an area of exploration, which is supported by Tillman (2000) and Gilles (2009). Our research will look at the mentoring experience as well as other forms in the teacher induction process.
Kelly, L. M. (2004). Why induction matters. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(5), 438-448.
Linda Molner Kelly (2004) from the University of Colorado at Boulder published results of a study that looked at the long-term retention of novice teachers who participated in an induction partnership between the University of Colorado and six school districts. She hypothesized that providing new teachers with quality induction programs may mitigate significant teacher attrition and thus will have an impact on staffing issues being faced by U.S. schools. She tracked ten cohorts of teacher inductees into their fifth year of teacher researching the components of their program that may have impacted retention.
The primary induction program that Kelly focuses on is the Partnership in Education (PIE) program. Components of this program are:
- reflective teaching practices
- individual mentoring from an expert teacher each week
- frequent networking with other novice teachers
- inquiry-based graduate study tailored to each teacher’s professional needs and classroom situation
The findings of Kelly’s research show that such programs are effective in raising teacher competence and retention rates. Kelly’s research extends Ingersoll’s (2001) findings that indicate that more than a third of beginning teachers leave the profession during the first three years, and almost half leave after five years. Although our study will not specifically look at retention rates of teachers, the detailed description of these components will be useful when compared to other teacher induction program elements from our study. The experiences expressed by our subjects can be used as an indicator to infer Kelly’s finding onto local contexts.Kent, A. M., Feldman, P., & Hayes, R. (2009). Mentoring and induction new Teachers into the profession: An innovative approach. International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 5, 73-95.
Andrea M. Kent, Phillip Feldman and Richard Hayes from the Education Department of the University of South Alabama, describe a Mentoring Teaching Program (MTP) designed to address the bridge the gap between pre-service and inservice teaching. This year-long program allowed first year teachers to begin their teaching careers as full-time instructors in regular classrooms with the support and guidance of a full-time mentor and university supervisor. The focus was on:
- Partnering with a local school district to reduce the number of teachers leaving in the first five years
- Providing teacher candidates with the skills needed to teach in “hard to staff schools”
- Identifying the support systems in a school district that would be necessary for a mentoring or induction program to be successful
It is clear that new teachers need guidance and support and similar to Gilles et al. (2009), formal partnerships between universities and school districts will help beginning teachers to be successful in the classroom.Mandel, S. (2006). What new teachers really need. Educational Leadership, 63(6), 66-69.
Scott Mandel, an English, History and Musical Theatre teacher at Pacoima Middle School, interviewed mentors and beginning teachers to identify the real needs of new teachers. According to his research, beginning teachers want help with practical information and skills, which include:
- Setting up the classroom and preparing for the first few weeks of school
- Covering the prescribed curriculum
- Grading fairly
- Dealing with parents
- Maintaining personal sanity
Unlike Moir (2009) and Renard (2003) who describe systemic supports for beginning teachers, Mandel specifically identifies the practical information and skills necessary for teachers to feel greater success and will keep more teachers in the profession.Moir, E. (2009). Acceleration teacher effectiveness: Lessons learned from two decades of new teacher induction. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(2), 14-19.
Ellen Moir, the executive director of the New Teacher Center in Santa Cruz California describes how induction programs go beyond the new teachers and their mentors who work with them. The research describes the lessons learned over the past twenty years, which include:
- Induction programs require system wide commitments to teacher development
- Effective induction programs combine high quality mentoring with communities of practice
- Online communities provide timely, cost-effective supports for mentoring
- Induction programs build a pathway for leaders
Implementing an induction program can be difficult, and similar to Renard (2003), there are specific strategies that can be used to help beginning teachers to be successful.National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (1992). Mentoring in context: A comparison of two U.S. programs for beginning teachers. East Lansing, Michigan: Feiman-Nemser, S. & Parker, M. B.
Sharon Feiman-Nemser and Michelle B. Parker from the National Center for Research on Teaching Learning at Michigan State University compare two mentoring program, one in Los Angeles and another in Albuquerque. Although both programs rely on experienced teachers to guide and support beginning teachers, the way a teacher is mentored can take one of three forms:
- A mentor as a local guide
- A mentor as an educational companion
- A mentor as agents of change
Regardless, beginning teachers will benefit if they both engage in regular experiences of observation and conversation as tools for improving practice. This study is important as it sheds light about how mentors can support beginning teachers.Odell, S. J. & Ferraro, D. P. (1992). Teacher mentoring and teacher retention. Journal of Teacher Education, 43(3), 200-204.
Sandra J. Odell and Douglas P. Ferraro (1992), an associate professor from the Department of Education and Professional Development, and the Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, respectively, at Western Michigan University, published results of a study that examined two cohorts of K-5 beginning teachers four years after their initial, mentored teaching year. Findings included that approximately 96% of teachers located were still teaching. Furthermore, of all the types of support received, such as instructional, resources, or management, the teachers most valued the emotional support provided by their mentors. Their research shows that, although mentoring alone cannot retain beginning teachers, as there are a host of other factors including environmental, psychological, and demographic considerations, teacher mentoring may help reduce the early attrition of beginning teachers.
Although our study does not aim to look at beginning teacher attrition rates, the knowledge this study provides about the emotional support necessitated by new teachers is valuable. Similar to the ideas that Gonzales and Sosa (1993) and Scott (2000) focus on, teachers’ needs shift throughout the year, but a most concerted effort must be made in terms of their emotional and personal development.
Renard, L. (2003). Setting new teachers up for failure…or success. Educational Leadership, 60(8), 62-64.
Lisa Renard, an experienced teacher from the Stafford, Virginia School District and the Peak System Team in Colorado describes the struggles of new teachers and describes how schools and district administrators can support new teachers through induction and mentoring programs.
Suggestions for supporting new teachers include:
- Avoiding the most challenging classes and grades
- Limiting the number of preps
- Limiting the coaching and extracurricular activities
- Ensuring that mentors and new teachers have the same planning periods for collaboration
Implementing techniques and scaffolding will allow the teachers to feel more confident, empowered and supported to become an effective classroom teacher. This is similar to Moir (2009), who identifies characteristics of effective induction communities.Roehrig, G. H., & Luft, J. A. (2006). Does one size fit all? The induction experience of beginning science teachers from different teacher-preparation programs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(9), 963-985.
Gillian H. Roehrig (2006) and Julie A. Luft from the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Michigan and Arizona State University respectively used a qualitative study to understand the induction experience of sixteen beginning science teachers. The study’s intent was to see if there is a difference in science teachers' induction experiences due to different teacher preparation training received by the subjects in the study.
The teacher induction program used in the study was the Alternative Support for Induction Science Teachers (ASIST). The findings indicated that the pre-service training of a science teacher influenced the type of support the teacher derived from their induction program. Although the varied pre-service experience in the United States is not the same practice here in B.C., comparisons to specific groups in the study most in-line with our policies would likely be helpful in our study.
Scott, N. H. (2000). Four years later: Issues in teacher induction.
Neil H. Scott (2000), from the University of New Brunswick, published results of a 4-year study of the New Brunswick Beginning Teacher Induction Program (BTIP) from 1995-1999. Findings show that beginning teachers benefit most from induction programs in the first two years of teaching. Furthermore, similar to Doerger’s (2003) findings, a single induction program cannot meet every teacher’s needs. In addition, his research found that there are often issues in matching up mentors with beginning teachers, as the teachers who are available to mentor may not have a classroom in close proximity to the beginning teacher, or may not have a similar course load assignment, leaving the teachers only the most general educational issues to discuss, and no common place to discuss them. Moreover, as Gonzalez and Sosa (1993) comment, the needs of the beginning teacher change as the year evolves; technical and information concerns dominate the early agenda, whereas emotional support and professional assistance increase later on.
Scott’s work is valuable to our study, as it is placed in a Canadian context, and is therefore relevant. Furthermore, the study extends Kilcher’s (1999) work, which outlines the four stages of induction programs: Orientation, Initiation, Consolidation, and Collegial Collaboration, showing, once again, the transformation that new teachers undergo in their formative years. Scott’s work also provides a look ahead, as he comments on the development of administrator induction programs for future educational leaders.
Smith, T. M., & Ingersoll, R. M. (2004). What are the effects of induction and mentoring on beginning teacher turnover? American Educational Research Journal, 41(3), 681-714.
Thomas M. Smith (2004) from Vanderbilt University and Richard M. Ingersoll from the University of Pennsylvania look at data from the 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey, which involves all beginning teachers in the United States, to study whether teacher induction has a positive effect on retention of beginning teachers. They hypothesized that there is a direct relationship between teacher induction, beginning teacher retention/turnover, school staffing problems, and school performance. The findings also draw a connection between the financial cost to not only beginning teacher loss, but also poor school performance.
Their findings show that beginning teachers who were provided with mentors form the same subject field and who participated in collective induction activities, such as planning and collaboration with other teachers, were less likely to move to other schools and less likely to leave the teaching occupation after their first year of teaching. These findings are congruent with those of Youngs, Wang, and Kelly. These particular components will be looked into in detail with our study. Additionally a look at the financial consideration of delivery and result of teacher induction will be an interesting angle to take in looking at our local context.
Tillman, B.A. (2000). Quiet leadership: Informal mentoring of beginning teachers. Momentum, 31(1), 24-26.
Beverly A. Tillman (2000), an associate professor of teacher education at the University of Dayton in Ohio, contends that there is a need for informal, or secondary, mentoring in beginning teachers’ formative years, especially when combined with formal, systematic programs that are already in place. Her research shows that engaging with a secondary mentor who works off campus can extend the support, communication, and trust necessary for proper mentorship and beginning teacher development. In her studies, beginning teachers admit to feeling utterly overwhelmed within the first week of school, largely due to the fact that novice teachers are faced with many of the same challenges as twenty-year veteran teachers, only without the skills and experience that they have. The beginning teachers studied gladly welcomed the additional support, as informal mentoring can provide a lifeline based on dialogue and sharing as opposed to the anxiety-induced observations and evaluations that formal mentors often partake in; the multiple forms of mentoring helped teachers feel more confident and reassured in their teaching.
Tillman’s findings are beneficial to our study, as we hypothesize that informal mentoring will play a large role in our subjects’ mentoring experiences; her studies have helped us gain an understanding of the unofficial mentoring available to beginning teachers. Unlike Wong’s (2001, 2004) work, which focuses on systematic, structured mentoring, Tillman offers a new perspective for our study.
Wang, J., Odell, S. J., Schwille, S. A. (2008). Effects of teacher induction on beginning teachers' teaching: A critical review of the literature. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(2), 132-152.
Associate Professor Jian Wang (2008) and Professor and Chair Sandra J. Odell, of the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and Dr. Sharon A. Schwille a senior academic specialist from Michigan State University, East Lansing perform a critical review of the literature that dates back to 1997 on the effects of teacher induction on beginning teachers’ conceptions and practice of teaching. The literature is analyzed from three approaches:
- effects of teacher induction components on beginning teachers’ teaching
- effects through teacher’ self-reports
- effects of using multiple data sources
The cumulative nature of this study by Wang et al. provides our study with a large background of work based upon teacher induction programs:- various teacher mentoring models
- lesson-based observation and conversations
- workshops and ongoing supports
- collaboration of beginning teachers
- content-focused induction
Their work summarizes and comments upon aspects of teacher induction that we will be able to compare and contrast to our findings. This study shows that the effects on actual teacher practice and student achievement resulting from teacher induction programs is one that has not effectively been looked upon. They suggest possible direction for future research which we will be able to use to provide perspective to our findings.Wollman-Bonilla, J. E. (1997). Mentoring as a two-way street. Journal of Staff Development, 18, 50-52.
Julie E. Wollman-Bonilla, an associate professor in the Department of Elementary Education at the Rhode Island College, investigated the benefits of mentoring programs on the mentors themselves. Traditionally, mentoring programs have been designed to support new teachers. However, the Barrington, Rhode Island’s mentoring program coincidentally also supported experienced mentor teachers with exceptional professional development opportunities by:
- Boosting self esteem – mentors felt honored to be recognized for their teaching abilities
- Reducing feelings of isolation – mentors had colleagues to share with
- Allowing teachers more opportunities for reflection
- Learning from the new teachers
It is clear that new teachers benefit from mentoring programs, and similar to Huling-Resta (2001), mentors also greatly benefit as it provides another avenue for professional development.Wong, H. K. (2004). Induction programs that keep new teachers teaching and improving. NASSP Bulletin, 88(638), 41-58.
Harry K. Wong (2004), a former high school science teacher, conducts an investigation of various American schools and school districts implementing successful induction programs. Research confirms that teacher qualification and acculturation lead to greater student success. Wong also maintains that teacher induction is a comprehensive and sustained process which enables teachers to become aware of their school and district missions and goals, as well as become guided and supported in their teaching practice and in their collaboration with other teachers. Furthermore, induction programs powered by principals are well-supported systems that should encourage lifelong, sustained professional development among teachers. While mentoring remains a large part of induction, Wong is clear about the difference between induction and mentoring, stating that comprehensive and successful induction programs involve a more extensive support system for beginning teachers, rather than only assigning a veteran teacher to a beginning teacher.
Wong’s findings implicate student achievement, not unlike the findings in the study conducted by Gonzalez and Sosa (1993). As much of our research alludes to, over 50% of new teachers will leave within their first five years. Our study will incorporate Wong’s findings in the implications of teacher retention and attrition.
Wong, H. K. (2001). Mentoring can’t do it all: New teachers learn best from systematic induction programs. Education Week, 20(43), 46-50.
Harry K. Wong (2001), a former high school science teacher, once again focuses on the differences between mentoring and induction as he investigates and evaluates several induction programs offered across American schools and school districts. He maintains that strong induction programs are systematic and longitudinal in their efforts, as opposed to the brief and ineffective contact a beginning teacher may have with a mentor. His research shows that teachers matched up solely with mentors improved minimally, as the mentor merely aided in reflection practices. On the other hand, Wong claims that training, support, and retention are the three major components in establishing systematic induction programs, and when done well, this kind of induction can strengthen and even positively change schools and teachers. In his research, the cooperative, structured, and sustained programs were most successful in terms of novice teacher success.
Wong’s findings are helpful to our study in that we can compare and contrast the many types of induction programs being implemented across America, especially with the programs mentioned in Holloway’s (2001) and Doerger’s (2003) work.
Youngs, P. (2007). District induction policy and new teachers' experiences: An examination of local policy implementation in Connecticut. Teachers College Record, 109(4), 797-836.
Peter Youngs (2007) from Michigan State University used case studies from 2000-2001 based upon two urban high-poverty Connecticut districts to explore how variations in teacher induction delivery affected the experience of beginning teachers. Furthermore, the focus of the study was to look at how the understanding of teaching induction by mentors, principals, and other educators mediates the effects of such programs.
Their findings show that difference in induction experience were related to district policy involving mentor selection, mentor assignment, and professional development. The relevance of these results suggest that teacher induction design by districts should look beyond the components of any particular program and examine the role of district leadership, district size, local teacher unions, and teacher mobility on induction policies and practices. Youngs' research gives our study another perspective to look at in examining our experience in the local context.